Kamis, 21 Maret 2013

Small Talk

What is Small Talk?
     Small talk is meaningless conversation in terms of content, but is often seen as socially important in certain situations. Small talk really help people who never met before to be an ice breaking among them. In many English-speaking countries, it can be viewed as rude or unfriendly if you not participate in it. Non-personal comments about non-controversial subjects are usually considered as appropriate for this type of conversation.
     We can make small talk conversation anywhere. For example, when we pay our groceries at the supermarket, we may chat with the cashier about weather. Making conversation like this may also be related to situation such as waiting in line. People in the line may comment to others about how slow it is in the post office or bank that day, for instance.
     When we go to party, small talk is very common to use, since the guests may know the host but not each other. It is considered rude not to mingle and speak with other guests at social function. Compliments are often used to accomplish this, such as complimenting someone dress or talk about the type of food offered.

The Topics

     Since not all topics can be a small talk, this is some topics which often to use and sample question or statement to help you start small talk.
  •  Travel / Places
               - Have you ever been to Lombok?
                    - Yes, last month.
               - What do you think of Lombok?
                    - I love it. The beach is so beautiful.
  • Job
               - Where do you work?
                    - I'm with Sweet Ballerina Production.
               - What line of business are you?
                    - Education. I'm with the Dept. of Education.
               - Sorry, but i noticed that you're wearing stewardess uniform.
  • Studies
               -Where did you go to school?
                    - Gunadarma University.
               - What was your major?
                    - I studied accounting.
  • Interest / Hobbies
               - So, you once played in Hurricane band.
                    - Yes, that's right. I was the lead vocal.
               - I've heard you collect old books.
                    - Yes, I've been bit of bookworm for several years.
  • Weather
               - The sun is shining brightly lately.
                    - Yes, the dry season has just begun.
               - Jakarta is certainly hot and humid.
                    - It's probably part of global warming.
 
References :

Senin, 18 Maret 2013

NOUN


A noun is a part of speech typically denoting a person, place, thing, animal, or idea.
In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
Lexical categories are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other kinds of expressions. The syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language. In English, nouns are those words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase.

HISTORY
The English word noun comes from the Latin nōmen, meaning "name" or "noun", a cognate of the Ancient Greek ónoma (also meaning "name" or "noun").
Word classes like nouns were first described by Pāṇini in the Sanskrit language and by Ancient Greek grammarians, and were defined by the grammatical forms that they take. In Greek and Sanskrit, for example, nouns are categorized by gender and inflected for case and number.
Because nouns and adjectives share these three categories, Dionysius Thrax does not clearly distinguish between the two, and uses the term ónoma for both, although some of the words that he describes as paragōgón (pl. paragōgá) "derived” are adjectives.

Definition of Nouns
Nouns have sometimes been defined in terms of the grammatical categories to which they are subject (classed by gender, inflected for case and number). Such definitions tend to be language-specific, since nouns do not have the same categories in all languages.
Nouns are frequently defined, particularly in informal contexts, in terms of their semantic properties (their meanings). Nouns are described as words that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, etc. However this type of definition has been criticized by contemporary linguists as being uninformative.
Linguists often prefer to define nouns (and other lexical categories) in terms of their formal properties. These include morphological information, such as what prefixes or suffixes they take, and also their syntax – how they combine with other words and expressions of particular types. Such definitions may nonetheless still be language-specific, since syntax as well as morphology varies between languages. For example, in English it might be noted that nouns are words that can co-occur with definite articles (as stated at the start of this article), but this would not apply in Russian, which has no definite articles.
There have been several attempts, sometimes controversial, to produce a stricter definition of nouns on a semantic basis. Some of these are referenced in the Further reading section below.

Form of Nouns
A noun in its basic form will often consist of a single stem, as in the case of the English nouns cat, man, table and so on. In many languages nouns can also be formed from other nouns and from words of other types through morphological processes, often involving the addition of prefixes and suffixes. Examples in English are the verbal nouns formed from verbs by the addition of -ing, nouns formed from verbs using other suffixes such as organization and discovery, agent nouns formed from verbs usually with the suffix -er or -or, as in actor and worker, feminine forms of nouns such as actress, lioness, nouns formed from adjectives such as happiness, and many other types.
Nouns may be identical in form to words that belong to other parts of speech, often as a result of conversion (or just through coincidence). For example the English word hit can be both a noun and a verb, and the German Arm/arm can be a noun or an adjective. In such cases the word is said to represent two or more lexemes.
In many languages nouns inflect (change their form) for number, and sometimes for case. Inflection for number usually involves forming plural forms, such as cats and children (see English plural), and sometimes other forms such as duals, which are used in some languages to refer to exactly two of something. Inflection for case involves changing the form of a noun depending on its syntactic function – languages such as Latin, Russian and Finnish have extensive case systems, with different forms for nominatives (used principally for verb subjects), accusatives (used especially for direct objects), genitives (used to express possession and similar relationships) and so on. The only real vestige of the case system in Modern English is the "Saxon genitive", where 's is added to a noun to form a possessive.

Type of Nouns 

Proper Nouns
You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun.
In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:
o   The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.
o   Many people dread Monday mornings.
o   Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
o   Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
   
           Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:
o   According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.
o   All the gardens in the neighborhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
o   I don't understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.
o   The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road.
o   Many child-care workers are underpaid.
Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following examples:
o   The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in their rent.
o   The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants.
o   Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.
o   The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first introduction to the history of the Holocaust. 

Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:
o   The judge handed the files to the clerk.
o   Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
o   The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.
o   As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of a minuet.
o   The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.

Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:
o   Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
o   Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
o   Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
o   Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.

Countable Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:
o   We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
o   Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.
o   Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
o   The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.
o   Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.

Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:
o   Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.
The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.
o   Oxygen is essential to human life.
Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."
o   We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we moved.
You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.
o   The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.
Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."
o   The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.
o   Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."

 Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognize collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:
o   The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
The collective noun "flock" takes the singular verb "spends."
o   The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.
In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of the singular compound verb "is dining."
o   The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.
Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."
o   The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.
In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb "was startled."

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